Indoor Air Quality in Schools

Table of Contents Introduction Causes of poor indoor air quality Rate of schools with poor indoor air quality Health effects Addressing the problem Conclusion Reference List Introduction Indoor air quality in schools has a significant effect on students’ health. Schools offer a key indoor environment for students away or besides their home environment since they spend over ten hours per day at school. Since students spend many hours in schools, the issue of indoor air quality is of great significance and it should be handled with care (Daisey et al., 2003).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Indoor Air Quality in Schools specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Indoor air pollution might lead to students suffering from long and short-term health complications. Besides, it might degrade the learning environment and affect the students’ performance. A research proved that â€Å"poor indoor air quality contr ibutes to asthma attacks, absenteeism, and more illness† (Salleh et al., 2011, p.419). Researches done in the United States proved that good indoor air quality influences the trend of school attendance among the students. Indeed majority of the students suffer from respiratory diseases, skin and eye irritation, fatigue, sneezing, coughing, and nausea due to poor indoor air quality (Daisey et al., 2003). This paper will focus on poor indoor air quality in schools in the United States, its causes as well as the health problems associated with poor indoor air quality. Causes of poor indoor air quality Many factors contribute to poor indoor air quality. The factors include â€Å"poor ventilation, availability of contaminant sources like building materials, indoor temperature and humidity, and maintenance activities†¦the contaminants may range from particles, formaldehyde, radon, bacteria, fungi, to nitrogen oxides† (Salleh et al., 2011, p.419). At times, the level of c ontaminants in indoors increases relative to the concentration outdoors. The concentration of contaminants in the indoor air may lead to the occupants experiencing a range of health symptoms and discomfort. Daisey et al. (2003) posit, â€Å"It is hard to identify the cause of discomfort due to the presence of both indoor contaminants and other indoor environmental factors† (p.62). Generally, water damage and heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are the major causes of poor indoor air quality. Malfunctioning HVAC systems lead to accumulation of carbon dioxide and indoor air pollutants in classes subjecting the students to health problems.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More HVAC systems that do not regulate the level of humidity in the buildings might lead to growth of mold and bacteria, which cause illnesses like coughing and breathing problems. Other cau ses of â€Å"poor indoor air quality include choice of the building materials, poor site selection, roof design, and improper installation among other causes† (Salleh et al., 2011, p.420). The site where a building is located contributes to indoor air quality. Schools located in regions with high humidity are prone to growth of mold if they do not have proper heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems (Godwin Batterman, 2007). Besides, building repairs also contribute to poor indoor air quality. Some school buildings are too old such that it is hard to maintain them. Such buildings suffer from water damage, leaks, and excess moisture leading to poor air quality. Rate of schools with poor indoor air quality Half of the 120,000 private and public schools in the United States have poor ventilations systems (Godwin Batterman, 2007). Consequently, the schools have poor indoor air quality. Every year, over 55 million students enroll in these schools, thus exposing them to health hazards associated with poor indoor air (Godwin Batterman, 2007). In spite of the high number of students that are at risk of suffering from poor indoor air in schools, the government has done little to come up with a health agency responsible for enforcing and regulating policies with respect to precarious air atmosphere in schools. Over six million employees work in the country’s public schools. These employees also suffer the dangers of poor indoor air quality (Mendell Heath, 2005). The majority of employees agree that the air condition in their workplaces is wanting. Nevertheless, they do not have the capacity to address the problem. A research of school nurses carried out in 2010 found that over 40 percent of the participants were aware that students and employees were suffering from poor indoor air quality. Over 75 percent of the respondents agreed that their schools did not have a team to monitor and regulate indoor air quality.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Indoor Air Quality in Schools specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Indeed, schools are doing little to marshal the resources necessary for making sure that all classrooms and other workrooms have proper ventilation systems (Tham Zuraimi, 2010). The American teachers have declared the problem of indoor air quality as one of the neglected challenges. Health effects Scholars continue to associate student performance with indoor air quality. They have found that many cases of sicknesses and absenteeism come because of poor indoor air quality. In return, they have adverse effects on the students’ performance. Some of the short-term illnesses that come because of poor indoor air quality include fatigue, poor concentration, nausea, loss of focus and impaired memory (Mendell Heath, 2005). Lack of air circulation in classrooms leads to increase in temperature. The high temperature causes discomfort and contributes to fatigue. Besides, poor circulation of fresh air in classrooms leads to the accumulation of different toxic gases like carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. These gases lead to the students suffering from nausea. Schools erect the ventilation systems to aid in diluting or getting rid of airborne contaminants. The contaminants may emanate from cleaning agents, the breath from the students, as well as from pathogens. The ventilation systems enhance the circulation of fresh air, therefore diluting the airborne contaminants, while some of the contaminants are forced out of the building together with the contaminated air (Tham Zuraimi, 2010). Moreover, the ventilation system facilitates to regulate the level of carbon dioxide in the classrooms. Research has shown that high concentration of carbon dioxide in classrooms contributes to poor performance among the students. Besides, it leads to most of the students complaining of health problems. A study on students that learn in well-ventil ated classrooms found that the students scored higher marks on a standard test relative to students that learn in poorly ventilated classrooms. Poor indoor air quality leads to accumulation of bioaerosol contaminants in classrooms. According to Seppà ¤nen et al. (1999), bioaerosol contaminants refer to â€Å"a wide variety of agents from biological sources found in indoor environments† (p.227). The contaminants include bacteria, viruses, allergens such as the house dusts, and fungi that may contain irritants, toxins, and allergens.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Poor ventilation and other building features in classrooms contribute to respiratory diseases among the students. Even though no research has come up with the measurements of airborne virus in schools, some studies have compiled reports on the airborne bacteria (Seppà ¤nen et al., 1999). House dust contains bacterial endotoxins. Poor ventilation in schools leads to concentration of dust in classes. When students inhale the dust, the bacteria present in the dust leads to the majority of them exhibiting a number of flu-like symptoms. The students also suffer from breathing problems. Other negative health effects of poor indoor air quality include respiratory diseases and asthma. Yang et al. (2009) define asthma as, â€Å"A chronic respiratory inflammation that causes the airways to constrict and leads to wheezing, breathlessness, and coughing† (p.349). The majority of absenteeism cases reported in the United States schools are due to health problems related to poor indoor air quality. Most classes in the country are poorly ventilated leading to poor indoor air quality. Today, millions of students in the United States suffer from asthma, which account for over 14 million absenteeism cases recorded every year. The Institute of Medicine identifies moisture concentration in classrooms as the major cause of asthma in majority of the schools (Tham Zuraimi, 2010). There is a substantial relationship between humid enclosed spaces and asthma attacks. Improving indoor air quality goes a long way to reduce the number of absenteeism cases associated with asthma. Dampness and molds in classrooms contribute to health problems among the students. The presence of mold in classes causes throat irritation, coughing, headaches, tiredness, and wheezing. Students with weak immune systems, or who are vulnerable to infections, are prone to suffering from health problems related to mold and humid indoor environment (Tham Zuraimi, 2010). The health dangers linked to poor indoo r air quality can be treacherous and in stern cases, fatal. Both adults and children exposed to these lethal air surroundings in schools are prone to exhibiting physical signs associated to poor indoor air quality. Nevertheless, the effect of poor indoor air quality on children’s health might be more adverse than it is to the grownups. Children have weaker health defense mechanism than the adults. Therefore, their body would not withstand the poor indoor air quality health related challenges. Addressing the problem Schools can use different strategies to address the problem of poor indoor air quality. One of the strategies is source control. Source control is an effective and inexpensive approach that works on eliminating the sources of pollution. The other strategy that schools can use is enhancing their ventilation systems. Improved ventilations would help in regulating air circulation in the rooms. Schools can also use air cleaners to improve the quality of indoor air (Yan g et al., 2009). Air cleaners help to remove air pollutants from the air leaving the rooms free of pollutants. In addition to using these strategies, schools need to conduct regular supervision of their buildings to determine if there are signs of leaks, moisture, and mold, which would ensure that the buildings are in a condition that does not support the growth of air pollutants. Conclusion Indoor air quality in schools have significant effects on students’ health, However, little is done to ensure that schools work on the quality of their indoor air. Numerous factors contribute to poor indoor air in the majority of the schools. They include poor ventilation systems, building repair, site selection, and improper installations, among others. Today, over 60,000 private and public schools in the US have inadequate indoor air quality. The schools register over 55 million students every year, hence, subjecting them to health dangers associated with poor indoor air quality. Poor i ndoor air quality leads to students suffering from asthma, fatigue, nausea, and breathing problems. In addition, presence of mold in classrooms leads to students contracting a cough, throat irritation, and feeling tired. To address these problems, schools need to work on improving their ventilation systems and controlling the major sources of air pollution. Reference List Daisey, J., Angell, W., Apte, M. (2003). Indoor air quality, ventilation and health symptoms in schools: An analysis of existing information. Indoor Air, 13, 53 – 64. Godwin, C., Batterman, S. (2007). Indoor air quality in Michigan schools. Indoor Air, 17(2), 109-121. Mendell, M., Heath, G. (2005). Do indoor pollutants and thermal conditions in schools influence student performance? A critical review of the literature. Indoor Air, 15, 27 – 52. Salleh, N., Kamaruzzaman, S., Sulaiman, R., Mahbob, N. (2011). â€Å"Indoor Air Quality at School: Ventilation Rates and It Impacts towards Children- A rev iew.† IPCBEE, 6, 418 – 422. Seppà ¤nen, O., Fisk, W., Mendell, M. (1999). Association of ventilation rates and CO2 concentrations with health and other responses in commercial and institutional buildings. Indoor Air, 9, 226-252. Tham, K., Zuraimi, M. (2010). Indoor air quality and its determinants in tropical child care center. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 2225-2239. Yang, W., Sohn, J., Kim, J., Son, B., Park, J. (2009). Indoor air quality investigation according to age of the school buildings in Korea. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(1), 348-354. This essay on Indoor Air Quality in Schools was written and submitted by user Tenebrous to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Apple’s brilliant flat panel displays offer certified color at unbelievable prices. All displays in the Apple family offer crisp pixels, the best viewing angle technology and a broad color gamut so you can judge your work accurately. And they won’t break the bank - or your back, for that matter. Indie budget, blockbuster view The latest addition to the lineup is the 20-inch Apple Cinema Display, weighing in at hefty 1680 by 1050 pixels, plenty of room to edit your latest feature. This gorgeous new display delivers the same wide aspect and great picture quality of the 23-inch model at an incredible price, just $1299. And don’t forget it’s actually super-light and super-thin, too. Top-of-line meets bottom line Or step up to the amazingly well priced 23-inch Apple Cinema HD Display, now only $1999. With 2.3 million digital pixels - more than enough (1920 by 1200 pixels) to support HD content in its native format, with space to spare - the 23-inch is perfect for video professionals using a Power Mac G4. Only pennies per pixel The 17-inch Apple Studio Display supports a resolution of 1280 by 1024 pixels - equivalent to the work space you get with a 21-inch cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor. Now every desktop can afford more desk space since the 17-inch Studio Display now costs $699. Wide viewing angle But the breakthrough prices don’t come at the cost of performance. When you sit down at an Apple display, you see the whole picture immediately, from virtually any angle, except perhaps from behind. That’s because Apple displays use the best viewing angle technology on the market today to ensure that your eye can see the digital signal from the computer without your adapting to the device’s limitations. Apple uses the best viewing angle technology to minimize color shift when you’re not looking straight at the display. And who does? First of all, if you invite another person, say a client, for instan... Free Essays on Macs Free Essays on Macs Apple’s brilliant flat panel displays offer certified color at unbelievable prices. All displays in the Apple family offer crisp pixels, the best viewing angle technology and a broad color gamut so you can judge your work accurately. And they won’t break the bank - or your back, for that matter. Indie budget, blockbuster view The latest addition to the lineup is the 20-inch Apple Cinema Display, weighing in at hefty 1680 by 1050 pixels, plenty of room to edit your latest feature. This gorgeous new display delivers the same wide aspect and great picture quality of the 23-inch model at an incredible price, just $1299. And don’t forget it’s actually super-light and super-thin, too. Top-of-line meets bottom line Or step up to the amazingly well priced 23-inch Apple Cinema HD Display, now only $1999. With 2.3 million digital pixels - more than enough (1920 by 1200 pixels) to support HD content in its native format, with space to spare - the 23-inch is perfect for video professionals using a Power Mac G4. Only pennies per pixel The 17-inch Apple Studio Display supports a resolution of 1280 by 1024 pixels - equivalent to the work space you get with a 21-inch cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor. Now every desktop can afford more desk space since the 17-inch Studio Display now costs $699. Wide viewing angle But the breakthrough prices don’t come at the cost of performance. When you sit down at an Apple display, you see the whole picture immediately, from virtually any angle, except perhaps from behind. That’s because Apple displays use the best viewing angle technology on the market today to ensure that your eye can see the digital signal from the computer without your adapting to the device’s limitations. Apple uses the best viewing angle technology to minimize color shift when you’re not looking straight at the display. And who does? First of all, if you invite another person, say a client, for instan...

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Values for Children Essay Example for Free

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Perfection According to Mayrs What is Evolution :: What is Evolution Essays Mayr

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Principles and Theories of ethics Essay

In their quest to seek for solutions on ethical issues, human beings have constantly been formulating theories. These theories form an important point from where any investigation should be launched. As people invent new ideas or even improve on the current existing ideas, more challenges and complications come up. This has been observed in the modern world where scientific advancement has seemed to dominate in every field of knowledge. Among these fields of scientific inventions is the medical field which many people have believed to reduce the mortality rate and at the same time increased the life expectancy among many people in the world. Despite all these, fertility rate has seemed to reduce among the people while the terminal illnesses have been rapidly increasing. It is this reason that many doctors and medical practitioners have joined hands to look for long lasting solutions to these problems. Some of these solutions have been unearthed, which include the use of stem cells in treating patients with these problems. This has however raised many questions especially on issues concerning ethical justifications. This paper therefore examines two of such works that were carried out by Dr Shroff and Dr. Kerkis as reported in articles entitled ‘mice have been used to make human sperm’ and ‘Stem cell treatment lets Aussie breathe’ respectively. (http://www. news. com. au/perthnow/story/0,21598,23768047-5012754,00. html ; http://search. news. com. au/search? us=ndmperthnow&sid=5012760&as=NEWS. WORLD. CANDSAMERICA&ac=TST&q=Mice%20to%20replace%20men%20as%20sperm%20donors ) According to Rainbow C, there exist four principles of ethics. These include; least harm, justice beneficence and respect for autonomy. According to the principle to the principle of least harm, it is prudent to make a choice that will harm the least number of people. The choice made should also result to the least harm to the people involved. In the modern world, there are so many men who are willing to have children but unable because their sperms are not viable. According to the research, there is still hope for couples who experience such problems. The use of mice in production of human sperms therefore adheres to the principle of least harm and thus justices the use of mice in production of viable human sperms. The extraction of the dental pulp from teeth is however harmful but there harm is less as compared to the inability of a man to produce viable sperms. (http://www. bio. davidson. edu/people/kabernd/Indep/carainbow/Theories. htm ) The principle of justice on the other hand encourages actions that are fair to the concerned. Such a decision should be consistent and based on logic unless justified otherwise by existence of justified extenuating circumstances. In the case of mice and human sperm cells production, it should be noted that the men are first given the opportunity to try their best to get children in the natural way. Professional medical practitioners who exploit any other alternative of dealing with such a situation confirm their inability. The couples are finally given the chance to choose what is good for them and thus the use of mice is only for those who are willing. This therefore adheres to the principle of justice. Dr Kerkis has also made it clear that she first used stem cells from dental pulp that was extracted from ‘a male donor’. It therefore means that the process is justified by the adhearing to the principle of justice since the consent of the concerned was first sought. (http://www. lancs. ac. uk/fss/resources/ethics/theories. htm ; http://www. trinity. edu/cbrown/intro/ethical_theories. html) According to beneficence principle, people must do all that is seen to be good. Just like the utility principle, it is always advisable to maximize what is good and minimize the evil. It is very true to say that the greater the amounts of good that people do, the more the benefits. According to this principle, production of viable human sperm cells by mice will do well to those who are unable. Apart from improving the psychological health of the concerned, it will also strengthen family bonds that may otherwise be weakened by the inability to get children especially in those communities where children are highly valued as an important ingredient in a happy marriage. (http://www. trinity. edu/cbrown/intro/ethical_theories. html ) According to the principle of respect for autonomy, it is very important to ‘allow people to reign over themselves and to be able to make decisions that apply to their lives ’. This is based on the fact that only an individual can understand why he/she chooses a particular lifestyle. Since every human being must be respected, any decision, especially that which involves intimate issues, must come from him. In order to do so, he must get enough information in the consequences and finally, his consent must be obtained. The reason is because every human being has hisher emotions and motivations that heshe understands from hisher own life experiences. It is the right for every person to lead a life style that he she actually enjoys in which the control over it is vested in hisher decision. It is however important to realize that there exists two perspectives of autonomy respects; paternalists and libertarians views. According to paternalistics, ‘an authority prioritizes a dependent person’s best interests over the dependent person’s wishes’. In the case of mice and human sperms, since the man is aware of his inability to produce viable sperms even though he may wish to have children, he has the freedom to choose to live without them. If he decides so and realizes more satisfaction without the children than using mice to produce viable sperms, he becomes libertarian. When his wife and medical practitioner convinces him to use mice to get children, the principle of autonomy is violated and he becomes a paternalistic since his wish may not be based on the use of mice in producing the viable sperms even though his interest is to get children. Libertarian perspective is therefore observed when the person’s wish is prioritized over hisher best interest. The person maintains hisher autonomy over hisher decision. (Allan J. Kimmel, 1988, pp. 42) In the case of stem cells treatment for the paralyzed man is Australia, the principle of least harm is violated since the extraction of the embryonic stem cells will cost the life of the unborn child irregardless of whether the concerned woman’s consent was given or not. Human life ideally begins after fertilization and it is wrong to deprive the unborn of its right to live in favor of a person who has already had the chance to be born. If such actions were to be encouraged, many people will never live to be born and this will cause more harm than treating the paralyzed people especially if Dr Shroff’s vision is to be realized as expressed by her hopes â€Å"her technology would be made available around the world to patients suffering from incurable diseases and terminal conditions. † Dr Shroff’s technology also contradicts the principle of justice. The fact that there are many incurable diseases and terminal conditions that may be cured using embryonic stem cells does not justify the act of depriving the unborn the right to life. It will therefore be an act of injustice to deprive the unborn of their right to life. The only extenuating circumstance should be when the woman’s pregnancy threatens the life of both the unborn and its mother. The doctor’s advice should be sought and any alternative exploited before the decision to terminate the pregnancy and donate the embryonic stem cells is arrived. It should be realized however that this would result to paternalistic autonomy. Dr Shroff’s technology will also violate the principle of beneficence. This is because the embryo will not benefit in any way from the act of donating its stem cells. The embryo itself cannot give permission to donate the stem cells. The principle of autonomy is not spared either. The patient may enjoy a paternalistic autonomy but the embryo, which is indeed a human being does not have autonomy to decide on whether to donate the stem cells or not . For a person to make any sound decision on any issue, the principles however form the basis of ethical themes. According to rainbow C, there are five major ethical theories. These include virtual ethical theory, deontological theory, casuist theory and utilitarianism ethical theory. (http://www. bio. davidson. edu/people/kabernd/Indep/carainbow/Theories. htm ) According to virtual ethical theory, a person is not judged through his/her actions but through his/her character. An action may not necessary indicate a persons normal behavior since behavior and action are normally conflicting. It is however important to observe an individual’s reputation, motivation and morals while making any judgment on any behavior that may seem to be unusual, irregular or unethical. It should however be observed that any individuals change of character is not put into consideration in this theory. This theory justifies the use of embryonic stem cells in the treatment of paralyzed patients. The assumption is that the doctors and the medical practitioners who actually carry out the process of extracting and injecting the stem cells into his/her victims body are people who are trusted and socially approved by the members of the community. Their character justifies their actions and thus they should not be questioned about what they do as long as a patient’s life is saved. The act of extracting the embryonic stem cells cannot be used to prove the doctor as guilty of murder as long as his/her record of accomplishment in this profession of medicine is clean. According to Rainbow C, the society’s rights are ethically correct and must be protected and prioritized while making any decision. All societies’ rights are ethically valid because the majority in any society endorses them. Those who have the power and resources may bestow rights upon people. The society is therefore responsible for deciding on what should be considered as a society is right. The issue of mice producing viable human sperm cells may not be welcomed by many societies. This is because many people do not think that human beings and animals especially the mice can share sperm cells. A child produced by such sperms may be isolated from the other people and this may cause more suffering and harm to it than good. Termination of human life is also unacceptable in the society. This is evident in countries where Christianity is the dominant religion. If the use of contraceptives is criminalized in such societies, it is even worse to extract embryonic stem cells to treat paralyzed people or even those with terminal illnesses. In such societies, everybody has the right to live and those people who are already born should seek medication incase of any ailment but not to destroy a life in order to save themselves. (http://www. bio. davidson. edu/people/kabernd/Indep/carainbow/Theories. htm ) According to deontological theory, people’s obligation and duties that have been assigned to them should guide them in the process of solving ethical dilemmas. By so doing, the person is believed to have done what was ethically correct. Doctors should help sick people. In this case, sickness refers to any abnormal functioning or dysfunctional of any body organ. Those people who cannot produce viable sperm cells should seek medical attention and the doctors have a duty and obligation to ensure that such people can get children. The theory therefore justifies Dr Kerkis and Dr Shroff’s actions. It is a doctor’s obligation to ensure that all incurable diseases and terminal conditions are adequately dealt with. The casuist ethical theory is based on the assumption that the current dilemma in question can be successfully solved in a similar way to previously solved dilemmas. This theory therefore compares the current ethical problem with past and similar ethical dilemmas that were successfully solved. It therefore justifies Dr Kerkis and Dr Shroff’s actions since their previous works as medical practitioners have been reported to bare good fruits. It however fails to acknowledge that a similar ethical dilemma may not have been witnessed before. (http://www. medscape. com/viewarticle/505222_2 ; http://www. bio. davidson. edu/people/kabernd/Indep/carainbow/Theories. htm ) The utilitarianism ethical theory supports any choice that produces the most benefit to most people. Such a choice is seen to be ethically correct. This theory therefore foresees the outcome of an act and judges it based on the benefits that are likely to accrue. There are two types of utilitarianism. These include act utilitarian and rule utilitarianism. According to rainbow c, â€Å" In act utilitarianism, a person performs the acts that benefit the most people, regardless of personal feelings or the societal constraints such as laws. Rule utilitarianism, however, takes into account the law and is concerned with fairness. A rule utilitarian seeks to benefit the most people but through the fairest and most just means available. Therefore, added benefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values justice and includes beneficence at the same time† (http://www. bio. davidson. edu/people/kabernd/Indep/carainbow/Theories. htm ) Two or more of these ethical theories should be combined in order to make the best ethical decision. For instance, I would solve Dr Kerkis dilemma by applying utilitarianism ethical theory, rights ethical theory and casuist ethical theory. I would also solve Dr Shroff’s ethical dilemma by applying rights ethical theory, utilitarianism ethical theory and virtue ethical theory. (http://courses. cs. vt. edu/~cs3604/lib/Ethics/notes. html ) Conclusion All the ethical theories have common goals that must be achieved for them to be successful. These common goals are the previously discussed ethical principles. It is important to realize that different points are emphasized by the theories that help people to arrive at a decision that is ethically correct. Different people usually use ethical theories in a different way depending on their individual experiences. The theories and principles of ethics lay a good foundation of analyzing actions since they guide people in making ethical decisions. This means that whether Dr Kerkis and/or Dr Shroff are justified or not to proceed with their work or not depends on which principle as well as the ethical theory an individual bases his /her ethical analysis. References Rainbow C, Descriptions of Ethical Theories and Principles, [Retrieved] 8th August, 2008, [From] http://www. bio. davidson. edu/people/kabernd/Indep/carainbow/Theories. htm Lancaster University, Ethical theories [Retrieved] 4th August, 2008. [From] http://www. lancs. ac. uk/fss/resources/ethics/theories. htm Ethical theories compared http://www. trinity. edu/cbrown/intro/ethical_theories. html relations between utilitarian, deontological, and Aristotelian ethical theories Lawrence M. Hinman, Introduction: A Pluralistic Approach to Moral Theory Excerpted from: Lawrence M. Hinman, Contemporary Moral Issues, 2nd ed. (Prentice-Hall, 1999). Ethical theories [Retrieved] 1st August 2008, [From] http://courses. cs. vt. edu/~cs3604/lib/Ethics/notes. html Ethical Theories, Principles, and Decision-Making Models, [Retrieved] 3rd August, 2008 [From] http://www. medscape. com/viewarticle/505222_2 Allan J. Kimmel, 1988, Ethics and Values in Applied Social Research: Ethics and Values in Applied Social Research, SAGE. Stem cell treatment lets Aussie breathe http://www. news. com. au/perthnow/story/0,21598,23768047-5012754,00. html Perth now Sunday times, July 7th, Mice to replace men as sperm donors http://search. news. com. au/search? us=ndmperthnow&sid=5012760&as=NEWS. WORLD. CANDSAMERICA&ac=TST&q=Mice%20to%20replace%20men%20as%20sperm%20donors